耶鲁开放课程心理学导论笔记（已完结）
来自: 闲看花落(2023 家人都平安)
2011-01-03 01:57:10
纯属个人行为。欢迎提出意见。 有人看我再更新。。 呃，因为我也是正在看，并不是已经全部都记好了，所以如果不出意外的话进度差不多是一天一篇。总共有13课，尽量在开学前，就是1月17日之前更完。 电梯http://www.douban.com/group/topic/16801678/?start=100 现在是1月24日。。更到16课。13以后就没有字幕了，看着特别累，好没动力啊。。。这周更完，嗯！ ------------------------------------------------------------ 1月28日，全部更完~：） Instructor: Paul Bloom Reading materials: Peter Gray, Psychology Norton Reader 1. Psychology is broken up into 5 sub-areas: 1. Neuroscience: the study of the mind by looking at the brain 2. Developmental: learn about how people develop and grow and learn 3. Cognitive: computational approach to studying the mind—viewing the mind on analogy with a computer, looking at how people do things 4. Social: study of how people act in groups, how people act with other people 5. Clinical: the study of mental health and mental illness Economics and game theory are now essential tools for understanding human thought and human behavior—those issues connecting to philosophy, computer science, anthropology, literature, theology and many other domains. Example topics: How a physical thing can give rise to mental life? What are the basic components of human nature? You can see within every child the adult he or she will become. Is it true? What makes us the way we are? Why are we different? For example, to what extent are things the result of the genes we possess? What makes somebody attractive? Evil and good. Mental illness such as mood disorder, anxiety disorder, disorders in memory. The example of Phineas Gage. Personality disorder. Rarer cases: Capgras symdrome: The result of some sort of stroke. You develop a particular delusion: the people you love the most is replaced have been replaced. Is associated with a very high level of violence. Cotard’s symdrome You believe that you are dead. They are related at a pinpoint level to certain parts of your brain. ------------------三年后的分隔线---------------------- 直到现在还在断断续续收到喜欢，多谢大家支持~ 当年开始写这个笔记的时候还只是个统计系本科生，转眼这就已经拿到数学心理双专业本科学位，现在已经开始做心理硕士论文了。三年真快呀。 喜欢心理的大家都加油~
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-04 01:41:58
2. Brain. Francis Crick: “The Astonishing Hypothesis”—You, your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of personality identity and free will, are in fact no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules. Most people are dualists. Dualism: humans are not merely physical machines, there are duality of people. For humans at least, there are two separate things: our material bodies and our immaterial minds. Two arguments for dualism by Descartes: 1. There are things humans do that no machine could ever do. Humans are not limited to reflexive action. 2. There is something really different about having a body. That’s always uncertain, from having a mind. The scientific consensus now is that dualism is wrong. “The mind is what the brain does.” Reasons: 1. Dualism has always had its problems. It cannot explain how mind is connected with body. 2. Existence proof: physical objects can do complicated things, for instance, machines can play chess. 3. There is strong evidence that the brain is involved in mental life. The basic unit of the brain: neuron—a specific sort of cell. The neuron has three major parts: 1. The dendrites: get signals from other neurons. 2. The cell body: sums the signals up. 3. The axon: much longer than the dendrites. Surrounding the axon is a myelin sheath—an insulation that helps the firing work quicker. Neurons come to three flavors: 1. Sensory neuron: take information from the world. 2. Motor neuron: tell the muscles what to do. 3. Interneuron: connect the above two, do the thinking, make the connection between sensation and action. There are parts of the brain in which neurons can re-grow. Neurons are all or nothing. The ways to code intensity: 1. The number of neurons firing. The more neurons the more intense. 2. The frequency of firing. Neurons relate to one another chemically. There is a tiny gap—synapse--between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another. When a neuron fires, an axon sends chemicals (neurotransmitters) shooting through the gap, and they affect the dendrites. The chemicals could excite the other neuron or inhibit the other neuron. Neurotransmitters: a lot of psychopharmachology consists of fiddling with neurotransmitters. Two sorts of ways to fiddle with neurotransmitters (correspondingly two sorts of drugs): 1. Agonists: increase the effect of neurotransmitters by either making more neurotransmitters or stopping the cleanup of neurotransmitters or by faking a neurotransmitter by mimicking its effects. 2. Antagonists: slow down the amount of neurotransmitters, either because they destroy neurotransmitters or they make it hard to create more or they go to the dendrite of neuron and they put a paste over it so that the neurotransmitters cannot connect. e.g. 1. Curare: blocks motor neurons from affecting muscle fibers—it paralyzes you. 2. Alcohol: inhibitory. It inhibits the excitatory parts of your brain. 3. Amphetamines: increase the amount of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that’s responsible for general arousal. 4. Depression: there is too little of a neurotransmitter known as serotonin. Prozac: make serotonin more prevalent. 5. Parkinson’s disease: destruction of motor control. (One factor of Parkinson’s is too little of a neurotransmitter known as dopamine.) L-DOPA: increases the supply of dopamine. There are two ways that brain is better than computer: 1. The brain is highly resistant to damage. 2. The brain is extremely fast. How is the brain wired up? The brain works through massively parallel distributed processing. Different parts of the brain. There are something you don’t need your brain for: Newborn sucking Limb flexcation in withdrawal from pain Erection of the penis Vomiting What does your brain do? Subcortical structures: The medulla: responsible for heart rate and inspiration. The cerebellum: responsible for body balance and muscular coordination. The hypothalamus: responsible for feeding, hunger, thirst, and to some extent, sleep. The cortex: 80% of the volume of our brain, can be broken up into different lobes. The frontal lobe The parietal lobe The occipital lobe The temporal lobe There are maps of the body in the brain. 1. They are topographical, which means, if two parts are close together on the body, they will be close together on the brain. 2. The size of the body part represented in the brain does not correspond to the size of the body part in the real world. Rather, what determines the size in the brain is the extent to which either they have motor command over it or sensory control. How to know what the other parts of the brain do? 1. CAT scan, PET scan, fMRI. 2. To consider what happens to people when very bad things happen to their brain. The two parts of the brain There are differences between the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. e.g. Those who are right-handed have language in their left hemisphere, but the others are complicated. Some things are duplicated, but some things are more prevalent or more powerful in one part of the brain than the other. Crossover: everything you see in the left visual field goes to the right side of your brain; your right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. The two halves are connected by the huge web called the corpus callosum.
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-04 23:50:07
中文啊。。这个有点困难。。。 3. Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud Penis envy. Love father because he is sort of penis substitute, and reject mother who is equally unworthy due to her penis lack. That shapes your psychosexual development. The existence of unconscious motivation Rejecting the claim that you know what you are doing. e.g. Even if you are not lying, still there are desires and motivations that govern your behavior that you might not be aware of. There are three distinct processes going on in your head, and these are in violent internal conflict. The way you think and act are products of a set of conflicting creatures. 1. The id. Present at birth, is the animal part of the self. It is outrageously stupid. It works on “The Pleasure Principle”. Pure desire for pleasure. 2. The ego. Works on “The Reality Principle”. Try to figure out how to make your way through the world. Symbolizes the origin of consciousness. 3. The superego. The internalized rules of parents in society. Some desires are inappropriate, some actions are wrong, and you are punished for it. You get in your head a superego, a conscience that tells you when things are wrong. Basically your ego is in between the id and the superego. Freud believed there were five stages of personality development, and each is associated with a particular erogenous zone. If you have problem with some stage, you will be stuck there. 1. The oral stage. Sucking and chewing. Premature weaning of a child could lead to serious problems in his personality development. Orality: eat too much, chew gum or smoke, trying to achieve satisfaction through their mouth. Dependent and needy. 2. The anal stage. Problems can emerge if toilet training is not handled correctly. You are unwilling to part with your own feces. Compulsive, clean, stingy. 3. The phallic stage. “Oedipus Complex”. The king who killed his father and married his mother. 4. The latency stage. 5. The genital stage—the healthy adult stage. Defense mechanisms: we use different ways to keep that horrible stuff from the id making its way into consciousness. 1. Sublimation: use sexual energy or aggressive in other ways. 2. Displacement: refocus shameful thoughts or desires more appropriately. 3. Projection: I have certain impulses I am uncomfortable with, so rather than own them myself, I project them to somebody else. E.g. Homosexual desires. 4. Rationalization: when you do something or think something bad, you rationalize it and give it a more socially acceptable explanation. 5. Regression: returning to an earlier stage of development. Hysteria: when defense mechanisms do not work. Phenomena: hysterical blindness & hysterical deafness, paralysis, trembling, panic attacks, gaps of memory including amnesia and so on. Solution: hypnosis, free association The key notion of psychoanalysis is: your problems are actually reflecting deeper phenomena. Once you know what is going on to deeper phenomena, your problems will go away. Dream Dreams have: 1. A manifest content: what you experience in your dream. 2. A latent content: the hidden implication of the dream All dreams are wish fulfillment. Dreams have symbolism, things in dreams are often not what they seem to be. Religion View the idea of finding a singular, all-powerful god as seeking out a father figure that some of us never had during development. Scientific assessment of Freud There are two ways you could reject a theory: 1. It is wrong. 2. A theory could be so vague and all-encompassing that it can’t even be tested. The second point is one of the main critiques of Freud. Philosopher Karl Popper: “falsifiability”. What distinguishes science from non science is that scientific predictions make strong claims about the world and these claims are of a sort that they could be proven wrong. Example of the unconscious in modern psychology: 1. Language understanding ”John thinks Bill like him.”->”John thinks Bill like John.” ”John thinks Bill like himself.”->”John thinks Bill like Bill.” 2. Driving, chewing gum, shoelace tying 3. The more you pay for something the more you like it, and the more pain you go through to get something the more you like it. E.g. If somebody goes through a terrible initiation to get into a club, they will like the club more. 4. People exposed to death primes become more nationalistic, more patriotic, less forgiving of other people, less liking of other races and people from other countries. 5. Research done by Norbert Schwartz.
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Thinker (One EMPTY Seat) 2011-01-05 00:10:21
中文笔记见这里 http://www.douban.com/group/topic/16476197/ 耶鲁官方录像，和人人中文字幕版的资源
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-05 23:50:15
4. Behaviorism by B. F. Skinner Back to Freud Why there could be unconscious? Deception The best lies are the lies we tell ourselves. Behaviorism At the core of behaviorism are three extremely radical and interesting views. 1. A strong emphasis on learning. Everything you know, everything you are is the result of experience. There is no real human nature. Rather, people are infinitely malleable. 2. Anti-mentalism. The behaviorist manifesto is to develop a science without anything that is unobservable, and instead use notions like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment and environment that refer to real world and tangible events. 3. There are no interesting differences across species. =>You can study human learning by studying nonhuman animals. The three main learning principles that “can explain all of human mental life” 1. Habituation. It is the very simplest form of learning. A decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli that are familiar due to repeated exposure. It is a useful adaptive mechanism to keep track on new events and objects. It is important to notice something when it is new because then you have to decide whether it is going to harm you, how to deal with it, to attend to it. 2. Classical conditioning--Pavlov. It is the learning of an association between one stimulus and another stimulus, where stimulus means events in the environment like a certain smell or sound or sight. a) Unconditioned: when an unconditioned stimulus give rise to an unconditioned response. b) Conditioned: when a conditioned stimulus give rise to a conditioned response. Repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus will give rise to the response, and there is a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials. Extinction: when the teaching stops, the response go away. Spontaneous recovery Experiment: baby and rat. Like->rat & BANG->fear. How you could make phobias go away: you distinguish conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. You show the thing that would cause you to have the fear without the unconditioned stimulus “Systematic desensitization”: they expose you to what causes you the fear but they relax you at the same time, so you replace the aversive classical conditioned fear with something more positive. Hunger Fetishes Pedophiles & rapists What do we think of classical conditioning? It is just association Mainstream view: what happens in classical conditioning is just preparation. You become sensitive to a cue that an event is about to happen, and that allows you to prepare to the event. 3. Operant conditioning/Instrumental conditioning Learning the relationships between what you do and how successful or unsuccessful they are. Some of the behaviors get reinforced and those are the ones that survive. “The law of effect”: a tendency to perform an action is increased if rewarded, weakened if it is not. Reinforcement: something that makes the behavior increase. Positive reinforcement: you do something. Negative reinforcement: you take away something aversive. (Different from punishment) Shaping: sometimes you cannot wait until the animal/kid do the right thing and reward them. Two-step process: treats=>”Good dog” Ratio(how many times)/interval(how long time) Fixed/variable E.g. Slot machine: ratio & variable Partial reinforcement effect: suppose you want to train somebody to do something, and you want the training such that they will keep on doing it even if you are not training them anymore. The trick is: do not reinforce it all the time. Behaviors last longer if they are reinforced intermittently. Three general positions of behaviorism: 1. There is no innate knowledge. All you need is learning. 2. You could explain human psychology without mental notions like desires and goals. 3. These mechanisms apply across all domains and across all species They are NOT true. Experiment about rats running a maze, they can make it faster without any reward. The Garcia effect Phobias: the sort of phobias you are likely to have does not have much to do with your personal history, but rather it has a lot to do with your evolutionary history. Reading: A Review of B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior by Chomsky
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-07 06:51:11
5.Cognitive development by Piaget Children are active thinkers, they are trying to figure out the world. He started because he was interested in the emergence of knowledge in general—genetic epistemology, the origins of knowledge. “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”: development of an individual mimics or repeats development of the species. (Beautiful but entirely not true.) Two sorts of mechanisms children develop their understanding of the world: 1. Assimilation: the act of expanding the range of things that you respond to. Expand your way of looking at the world to encompass new things. 2. Accommodation: changing how you do it. Change your system of knowledge itself. The Stage Theory: 1. The sensorimotor stage. The child is purely a physical creature having no understanding in a real way of the external world. The child just touches and sees, but does not yet reason. Through this stage a child gradually comes to acquire object permanence. Object permanence: the understanding that things exist when you no longer see them. 2. The preoperational stage. The capacity to represent the world, to have the world inside your head, comes into being. But it is limited in a couple of striking ways: a) Children are egocentric. Children at this age literally cannot understand that others can see the world differently from them. Demon: The three mountains task. b) Lack of the idea of conservation. Conservation: there is ways to transform things such that some aspects of them change but others remain the same. 3. Concrete operations. You can solve the conservation problem, but still you are limited to the extent you are capable of abstract reasoning. 4. You could get abstract and scientific reasoning. Piaget fared a lot better than did Freud and Skinner. Reason: There are interesting and falsifiable claims about child development. Claims about the failure of conservation in children at different ages could be easily tested and systematically tested. At the same time, there are limitations in Piaget’s theory. 1. Theoretical limitations: whether he really explains how a child goes from a concrete thinker to an abstract thinker, or how he goes from not having object permanence to understanding object permanence. 2. Methodological limitations: children are not very good at language, and this might lead you to underestimate how much they know. And this is particularly a problem the younger you get. 3. Factual limitations: what do infants and children really know? E.g. Infant cognition. You need to use clever methods, say, look at their brain waves. You can also look at their looking times. (two ways: preference; habituation & surprise) Experiments show that infant’s understanding of the physical world is there from the very start, but at the same time not entirely. How do we explain development? How do we explain when babies come to know things that they did not originally know? 1. Neural maturation, growth of the brain. What happens in development is not for the most part the growth of new neurons, it is for the most part pruning, getting rid of neurons. At the same time though, connections between neurons grow like crazy and this process of synaptic growth where there are the connections cross different synapses peaks at about two years. 2. There are problems with inhibition. Babies lack control. The part of their brain that could control certain behaviors is not active yet. Illustration: 3. Kids do not know things. Absence of experience. 4. Babies are also social animals too. Babies are mimics. Piaget, like Freud, believed that in general, across the board changes in how children think. An alternative, though, is that there are separate modules—Noam Chomsky, who believe there are separate pre-wired systems for reasoning about the world. These systems have some built-in knowledge and they have to do some learning, but the learning pattern varies from system to system, and there is separateness to them. Autism Dominant problems: A lack of social connectedness Problems of language Problems dealing with people “Mind blindness” If you believe in modules, what are they? Physics and people: An object module and a social module. There are general differences between children and adults. E.g. There is a very big difference between a creature that does not have language and a creature that does. Learning a language reconfigures the human brain in such a way that is really exceptional, and that has no parallel in any other species.
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-08 03:39:44
6.language Language is, to a large extent, where the action is. The study of human language has been battle ground over different theories of human nature. Definition: language—systems like English, Dutch. Once we made some generalizations about language in this narrow sense, we could then ask to what extent do other systems such as animal communication systems relate to this narrower definition. We could ask, in this narrow sense, what properties does language have and in a broader sense, what other communication systems also possess those properties. Something is obvious about language Some basic facts about language 1. Languages all share some deep and intricate universals. In particular, all languages, at minimum, are powerful enough to convey an abstract notion like this: abstract in the sense that it talks about thoughts, and it talks about a proposition and spatial relations in objects. 2. Languages are different. They sound different. Language is special in that there is some sort of propensity or capacity or instinct for language unlike the other examples. –Darwin There are some basic facts that support Darwin’s claim. 1. Every human society has language. 2. A demonstrated case studies where language is created within a single generation. To some extent it is a part of human nature to create languages. 3. Every normal human has language. 4. If some parts of brains are damaged, you get language deficits or aphasias, where you might lose the ability to understand or create language. 5. Studies looking at the genes that are directly responsible for the capacity to learn and use language. Some What do all languages share? 1. All languages are creative a) Human’s capacity for language is unbounded and free. E.g. You can easily understand a sentence you have never heard before. 2. Language has structures going from the bottom to the top. All human languages have phonology, which is the system of sounds or signs; morphology, which is the system of words or morphemes, basic units of meaning; and syntax, which refers to rules and principles that put together words and phrases into meaningful utterances. a) Phonology. Phonology is the system of sounds that languages have. There is a finite list of possible sounds that language can use. When you learn a language you have to learn the phonemes that the language has. Also you have to figure out what the boundaries are between the words. You have to use sound signals to figure out the boundaries between the words. The pauses between the words are inserted by your mind as you already know where one word begins and another one ends and you insert a pause at that point. Top-down processing: an example of when you know what something is, you hear it that way. b) Morphology. “The arbitrariness of the sign”—Ferdinand de Saussure. Take any arbitrary idea in the world, the idea of a chair or a story or a country, and make a sound or a sign to connect to it, and the link is arbitrary. And those arbitrary mappings make up the vocabulary of a language. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. Often this is the same thing as a word, but not always. There are single morphemes and then there are words that are composed of many morphemes. c) Syntax. Syntax refers to those rules and principles that allow us to combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences. And syntax uses another neat trick: ”Infinite use of finite media”. You have a combinatorial system Different rules can conspire to create the same sentence. “No one would take seriously the proposal that a human organism learns through experience to have arms rather than wings, or that the basic structure of particular organs results from accidental experience. Language proves to be no less marvelous and intricate than these physical structures. Why, then, should we not study the acquisition of a cognitive structure like language more or less as we study some complex bodily organ?”—Noam Chomsky There are children in the world right now who are plenty smart, who really want to communicate, and who are entirely social creatures, but they cannot learn language. And this suggests that the ability to learn language and understand language is to some extent separate from these aspects of mental life. What do we know about the time course of language? Early on children start off, and they prefer the melody of their own language. Children are sensitive to every phoneme there is. When you were a baby, you could understand the sound differences of every language on earth. Now if you barely understand English, you narrow down until you are sensitive just to the language you hear. Around 7 months is babbling. The acquisition of sign languages has turned out to be exactly the same as the acquisition of spoken languages. Children start babbling at the same time, they start using first words, first sentences, first complicated constructions. There seems to be no interesting differences between how the brain comes to require and use the spoken language versus a sign language. Around 12 months of age, children start using their first words. These are words for objects and actions like “dog” and “up” and “milk”. They start showing some sensitivity to the order of words so they know that “dog bites cat” is different from “cat bites dog”. Around 18 months of age they start learning words faster. They start producing little, miniature sentences like “want cookie” or “milk spill”. And the function morphemes, the little words, “in”, “of”, “a”, “the” and so on, start to gradually appear. Around 7 years of age going up through puberty, the ability to learn language starts to go away.
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-10 11:01:23
7. Language; perception, attention and memory A follow-up on last lecture: A study looking at new-born babies shows that the preference for their own language emerges when they were born. This suggests that they are listening while in utero to they rhythms of their language and developing a preference for it. Do animals possess the same sort of language? And if not, can they learn it? Non-human animals possess communication systems Animal communication systems fall into sort of one of three categories. 1. A finite list of call. For instance, vervet monkeys have a small list of calls to convey different warnings like “attack from a snake” or “attack from a leopard”. 2. A continuous analog signal. For instance, bee dance communicates the location of food sources but does not do any syntactically structured way. Rather, the intensity of the dance corresponds to the richness of the food source. 3. Random variation on a theme. E.g. Bird song. It gets more controversial when we get to famous cases of primates trained by human, such as Kanzi(a male Bonobo who has been featured in several studies on great ape language, from wiki), Nim Chimsky, and other famous primates. Many scientists argue that animals like Kanzi, even if they can be said to be learning words at all, learn very few of them, and it takes them extensive years of training to learn, unlike a normally developing child who could learn a word in a day or a word in an hour. The utterances often have order, but this order tends to be very limited and lacks the recursive properties and in fact, the lack of recursion is not controversial. Finally, the utterances of trained chimpanzees are extremely repetitive. A broader question: why would we ever expect a chimpanzee to learn a human language? Ideas: 1. Chimpanzees should use language because chimps are so smart. Response: they are smart but we know that smart is not enough. We know that the human capacity of language is not totally a result of smartness. 2. Chimps are our nearest revolutionary relatives. We split from them a long time ago, and plainly humans are different from chimps. And there was five million years either way and that is more than enough time for a language capacity to evolve. Actually what is more interesting is the study of these animal communication systems in the wild. There is a linguistics of human language that has delineated the principles that underlie all human languages. It would be as extraordinarily interesting to attempt the same linguistic program to the other communication systems used in the wild such as the cries of the vervet monkeys and bee dance. The relationship between language and thought could break up into two general questions. 1. Is language necessary for abstract thought? One way to answer this question is to look at creatures without language like babies and chimpanzees and see how smart they are. 2. Even when you know a language, do the structural properties of the language that you know affect the way you think? The claim that the language you know affects the way you think is sometimes described as linguistic relativity or the Sapir-Whorf hypotheses. Perception, attention and memory A series of claims: 1. For perception, the problem of perception is hard, and that successful perception involves educated and unconscious guesses about the world. 2. For attention, we attend to some things and not others, and we miss a surprising amount of what happens in the world. 3. For memory, there are many types of memory. The key to memory is organization and understanding, and you cannot trust some of your memories. Perception It is a difficult problem how people see things because the retina is a two-dimensional surface and you have to infer a 3D world from a 2D surface, and this is, from a mathematical point of view, impossible. What this means is, for any two-dimensional image, there is an indefinite number of 3D images that correspond to it. The way we solve this problem is that we have unconscious assumptions about how the world works. Our minds contain certain assumptions about how things should be that enable us to make educated guesses from the two-dimensional array on to the three-dimensional world. 1. Color and brightness Objects’ color is not merely a matter of what material they are made of, but of the amount of light that hits it. When we see a surface in shadow, we automatically assume that it is lighter than it looks, and we see it as lighter. This is an illustration of how the information to your eyes is just one bit of information; the degree of light coming from a single source is one bit of information that you use to calculate certain assumptions and come to a conclusion. 2. Objects To program a computer to segment a scene into different objects is hugely difficult, and the question of how we do it is, to some extent, unknown. One answer to this question is there are certain cues in the environment that are signals that you are dealing with different objects, and these cues are often described as Gestalt principles. Example 1: “Proximity”. When you see things that are close to each other, you are more likely than not to assume that they belong to the same thing. Example 2: “Similarity”. Example 3: “Closure”. Example 4: “Good continuation”. Example 5: “Common movement”. If things move together they are a single object. Example 6: “Good form”. These are useful cues that guide our parceling of the world, our segmenting of the world into distinct objects. 3. Depth There are certain assumptions the visual system makes that are not always right, and in fact, in cases of visual illusions, can be wrong, but will guide you to perceive the world in a correct and accurate way. For example, “binocular disparity”. This is the only depth cue that involves two eyes. If I look at you pretty close, the images I get from my two eyes are somewhat different or I have to focus my eyes together to get the same image. The further away, given the two eyes that are static, the closer the images look. Unconsciously and automatically, you make estimations on how far people are in depth based on binocular disparity. “Interposition” How do you know I am in front of the podium? “Relative size” How far away am I? Part of the way you will figure it out is you know how tall a human is supposed to be. “Texture gradient” How do you know if that thing is this object till the backwards or an object in another self? The answer is things with textures will show themselves because the textures will get smaller from a distance. “Linear perspective” Attention and memory Memory is a hugely broad concept. It includes autobiographical memory, which is what we standardly think. Also, knowing English, knowing how to stand, knowing how to chew and swallow are all things you have learned. There are broadly two types of amnesia. 1. You lose your memory of the past-- Matt Damon amnesia. 2. You lose the ability to form new memories. Some basic distinctions in memory: 1. Sensory memory. It is a residue in your senses. 2. Short-term memory/working memory. It spans for a few minutes. 3. Long-term memory 1. Explicit memory: what you have conscious access to. 2. Implicit memory: more unconscious, e.g. how to walk, how to ride a bicycle. 1. Semantic memory: basically facts, e.g. what a word means, what is the capital of Canada. 2. Episodic memory: autobiography. It is what happened to you. 1. Encoding: getting the memory in, as when you study for a test or you have an experience. 2. Storage: holding the memory. 3. Retrieval: getting the memory out. a) Recall: when you just put it out of memory. b) Recognition: when you recognize what corresponds to something in the past. (Different levels of what happens in memory) You can crudely break up memory into stages Sensory memory (just the stuff that comes in)->short-term memory->long-term memory Attention determines what gets into memory. Attention has certain properties. The Stroop effect When you are attending something, you have a very small window of attention, and you lose the focus on other things. “Change blindness”: when there a focus of attention focused in a certain way, we tend to be oblivious to other things that go on in the environment. Often it is quite difficult when there is a change in scene to notice what changes and what stays the same. 不好意思来晚了。。这次的特别多，不知道为什么
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-11 06:42:02
8. Memory You think right now that you are perceiving the world, the change blindness experiment suggested this is not true. Usually this is okay because your memory and your visual system exploits a basic fact about the universe, which is that most things stay the same most of the time. You perception of reality is a lot more sparse, a lot more limited than you might think it is. The distinction among sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory Storage differences 1. LTM has a huge storage capacity. This is the memory you walk around with. It includes all the words in English, it includes everybody you have ever met, languages, faces, stories, locations, nursery rhymes, songs, TV programs. It is not true that you remember everything that has ever happened to you, at the same time though, you have a huge amount stored in your brain in LTM. It has to be limited, but nobody know how big it is. 2. STM. It is actually very limited. Under normal circumstances the standard memory storage of short-term memory is sever plus or minus two chunks (a chunk is a basic memory unit, how large a chunk is depends on does it make sense to you, for instance, a word or a meaningless letter).—George Miller How do you get into long-term memory? 1. Maintenance rehearsal. But this would not typically get things into long-term memory. Rehearsal is usually not enough. 2. What you need is structure and organization. The more you structure something, the deeper you think about it, the better it gets entrenched in the long-term memory. It you really want to remember something, the best way to remember is to give it meaning, to give it sense. The way to remember things that are otherwise arbitrary is to give them some organization through memory tricks, through vivid imagery or songs or poetry. How do you get information out? 1. Retrieval cues: things that have been associated with what you are trying to remember. 2. There is a more general relationship between encoding and retrieval, called the “compatibility principle”: you are much better to remember something in the context in which you have learned it. Also known as “context-dependent memory” and “state-dependent memory”. Elaborative rehearsal and retrieval involves the connections between different things. 1. Elaborative rehearsal is that the more you think about something the easier it is to remember. 2. Elaborative retrieval: when you want to get something back out of memory, people tend to give up too soon. There are a lot of things in people’s memory, but it needs work to extract. Sometimes you think you forget and it is because you have not looked long enough. Déjà vu: a feeling that an event has happened before. This is a clue: it is worse with frontal lobe damage. One theory: “Déjà vu is a feeling that it has happened before. It has. It happened half a second ago.” Sometimes there is a glitch, a disturbance in the force. Something happens to you and you put it in your memory, but it is as if you don’t put the stamp on it of what time and what date. You store the memory, but you don’t store the memory as happening right now. Forgetting Why do you forget? 1. Your brain is a physical thing. It is a physical piece of meat, and it kind of goes bad. Physical things decay. And so the memory traces that are laid onto your brain will just decay over time. 2. Interference. The more information that comes in that’s similar to the stuff you are trying to remember, it blocks your recovery of original information. 3. There are changes in retrieval cues. The more time goes by the more the world changes. The change in retrieval cues can make it more difficult to recall certain things. E.g. The case of childhood amnesia: people have a difficult time recovering very early memories. It could be language, a baby starts out with no spoken or signed language, and it might be that the learning of a language reformats your memory. It could be neural maturation. 4． Brain damage. Two kinds of amnesia: 1. Retrograde amnesia: “retro” for “past”. It is when you lose some memory of the past. This could be in a case where you get some sort of head trauma. The brain has to be wired and catch up to the experience you are having. A sudden blow to the head will knock you unconscious, and then the memories that have happened immediately prior will not get consolidated, and they’ll be lost forever. 2. Anterograde amnesia: you lose the ability to form new memories. Actually they could form new memories, but of certain types. In these sort of cases, you lose the ability to form explicit conscious memories that you are aware of, but some sort of memories persist, and you are able to form them. “Momento” Sometimes people get their memories implanted. 1. People tend to fill in the blanks with things they know. 2. People also can integrate suppositions made by others. E.g. eyewitness testimony. People’s memories sway by leading questions. Hypnosis What hypnotizing does is it makes people very willing to coorperate. Unfortunately it isn’t as if there is a memory storage there where you could just go through and look. What happens is people will be very eager to please the hypnotist, and so they will make stuffs up. Hypnotic regressions. When we ask you to go back to your four-year old birthday party and you are hypnotizable, you’ll be just like a four-year old, except you won’t be like a real four-year old. What you’ll be like is an adult’s notion what a four-year old is supposed to be. So hypnosis just makes you want to give a persuasive account of what happened. Repressed memories There are many adults who claim to have experienced traumatic sexual abuse, and there is a subset of cases where people have had no memory up to a point of what happened to them. Flashbulb memories: these memories are being so vivid, but they can’t really be trusted, because they are such important events, many people have been asked the questions before (like where were you on Sep 11?) and talked about it. What happens in these conversations is stories change.
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-12 00:00:37
9. Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey) Definition of love (by Sternberg): 1. Intimacy: the feeling of closeness, of connectedness of someone, of bonding, you share secrets, you share information with this person that you don’t share with anybody else. 2. Passion: physical attraction and sex 3. Commitment: the willingness to label it as such and the commitment to maintain that relationship at least for some period of time Permutations: 1. Intimacy: liking. It is happening in most typical friendships of a casual kind. 2. Passion: infatuation, love at first sight. 3. Commitment: empty love. It is often the final stage of long-term relationships that have gone bad. In societies where marriages are arranged, this is often the first stage of a love relationship. 4. Intimacy & passion: romantic love. E.g. Romeo and Juliet. This is often the way when relationships start 5. Intimacy & commitment: companionate love. Best friends. 6. Passion & commitment: fatuous love. 7. Intimacy & passion & commitment: consummate love The social psychology of attraction focuses on seven variables: the big three and the more interesting four. All other things being equal, 1. People who find themselves in close spatial proximity to each other will be more likely to be attracted to each other. 2. Similarity. The more similar, the more likely you’ll find each other attractive. 3. Familiarity. We tend to fall in love with people in environment with whom we are already familiar. The more interesting four: 1. Competence. Generally we are more attracted to people who seem competent to us. But people who are too competent are kind of threatening to us. The kind of person we are really attracted to is the competent individual who occasionally blunders. This is called the pratfall effect. 2. Physical attractiveness. We believed looks is not important, but it really matters. 3. Gain, loss. We are more sensitive to change. The “gain effect”: In love, what is very powerful to us is not just someone always is positive to us, but who was not very positive to us, but over time becomes more positive. The “loss effect”: people who really hurt us are not the people who have always been negative, but the people who always have been positive whose regard now starts to fade. 4. Misattribution of the cause of arousal. You make a mistake and think it is love when it might be due to something else.
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-13 12:45:44
不好意思，好像昨天忘掉了。。 10. Evolution If you found complicated artifacts, you don’t assume they emerged by accident, you assume that they were created by an intelligent being. This has always had problems. One problem is it pushes back the question: “Where did that intelligent being come from?” Fossil evidence, vestigial characteristics, parallels with other animals. Darwin: show how you get these complicated biological structures emerging through a purely non-intentional, non-created process, a purely physical process. Natural selection: Variation gives rise to different degrees of survival and reproduction and gets passed down from generation to generation, and gives rise to adaptations. E.g. camouflage. 1. Darwin’s idea: biological forms evolve through this purely physical process. 2. The rejection of Descartes’: our minds are the product of physical things and physical events. Our cognitive mechanisms were evolved not to please God, not at random accidents, but rather for the purpose of survival and reproduction. They’ve been shaped by natural selection to solve certain problems. How to apply evolutionary theory to psychology? There are two ways you can go seriously wrong here: 1. To think that the natural selection will cause animals to want to spread their genes. What this idea fails to do is make a distinction between ultimate causation (the reason why something is there in the first place over millions of year’s history) and proximate causation (why you are doing it now). E.g. You eat because you are hungry. Vs You eat to sustain your body so you could spread your genes in the future. They are not alternative, rather they are different levels of explanation. 2. To think that the natural selection entails that everything is adaptive. Natural selection and evolution, more generally, distinguish between adaptations and byproducts and accidents. E.g. Back pain is an accidental byproduct of how our backs are shaped instead of adaptation. A lot of the debate tends to be over what is an adaptation and what isn’t. Easy questions: why do we like chocolate? (Our ancestors like sweet food, such as fruit, because they are good, and we developed some sweet food we like, which is chocolate.) Hard questions: music, sexual violence, multiple languages, visual art, fiction Ways to reject evolutionary psychology: 1. You might be a dualist, you might reject the idea that your mental life is the product of your brain, and hence evolution is irrelevant to psychology. 2. Accept that the mind is a physical thing, but then argue that all these instincts and these hard-wired facets of human nature might exist for other animals but they don’t exist for people. 3. You might think human mind actually does contain instincts, but we should study it by studying people, how could the consideration of evolution tell us anything interesting? Why evolutionary psychology is useful. 1. It can tell us what can be innate and what cannot. 2. What makes people different? 3. Group differences We are not logical thinkers; we have evolved instead to reason using rough-and-ready heuristics. Sometimes this can lead us astray. Heuristics: 1. Framing effects: you could respond differently to a situation depending on how the options are framed. Endowment effect: Once you own something, its value shoots up. When you get it and have to give it to others, you treat it as a loss, and as a loss it becomes more valuable. 2. Ignorance of base rates: base rates are very difficult to think about. People often think someone as an individual and ignore the background. 3. Availability bias: we tend to overestimate the chance for being killed by dramatic effects. 4. Confirmation bias
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-13 12:46:15
11. Emotion “To the psychologist alone can such question occur as: Why do we smile when pleased and not scowl? Why are we unable to talk to a crowd as we talk to a single friend? Why does a particular maiden turn our wits upside down? The common man can only say, of course we smile, of course our heart palpitates at the sight of the crowd, of course we love the maiden. And so probably does each animal feel about the particular things it tends to do in the presence of certain objects. To the lion it is the lioness which is made to be loved; to the bear the she-bear. To the broody hen, the notion would probably seem monstrous that there should be a creature in the world to whom a nestful of eggs was not utterly fascinating and precious and never to be too-much-sat-upon object which it is to her.” The point that he makes is a terrific one, which is yes, all of these things seem natural to us but the reason why they seem natural is not because they are in some sense necessary or logical truths. Rather, they emerge from contingent aspects of our biological nature. The good tastiness of chocolate is not some necessary fact about the world, it is the fact about our mind. Without emotions to drive us, we could do nothing at all. (The example of Mr. Spock) A famous case: Phineas Gage. After an accident he lost his character, “…he was fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in grossest profanity, manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restrains or advice.” Emotions set goals and establish priorities, and without them you would not do anything. Emotions are basically mechanisms that set goals and priorities. Different cultures have somewhat different emotional triggers and emotional baselines to respond to. But at the same time, emotions have universal roots that are shared across all humans and across many animals. Facial expressions: ways in which we communicate our emotions. Paul Ekman There are some subtle and very interesting differences across countries and across people, but there are also deep universals E.g. Smiles are universal. Even blind children smile, which make a point, that smiling is not learned by looking at other people’s faces. Smiling is also not uniquely human. People don’t smile because of happiness, rather people smile when they wish to communicate happiness. There are quite a few different types of smiles. 1. Pan Am smile/greeting smile: a smile to communicate “Hello”. It is opposed to a smile where the communication is that of genuine happiness. The difference is around the eyes. It is difficult to fake a really good, really happy smile. 2. Duchenne smile. Really happiness smile. http://www.whmsoft.net/services/ecards/index.php?cmd=ecard&fullimage=http://moblog.whmsoft.net/shared_images/en/27morris_ekman_c290bb24408d85789e4e974cc68fd01e.jpg&language=english 3. Coy smile/appeasement smile. Embarrassment or stress. You give it when you want people to like you. When you do it there is no eye contact Emotional contagion. For instance, it is difficult not to smile when you are facing somebody who is smiling. Fear It is a basic emotion, it is universal. It is a nonsocial emotion. It has a distinctive facial expression. What are we afraid of? Universal fear elicitors: spiders, snakes, height, storms, large animals, darkness, blood, strangers, humiliation, deep water, leaving home alone. What do they have in common? These are things that are scary in our ancestral environment. Social emotions: can be broken down into two categories: 1. Those emotions you feel towards your kin 2. Those emotions you feel towards the people you are not related to but interact with The emotions that generate kind or altruistic behavior Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins took the general step of suggesting that animals are the vehicles through which genes exploit to reproduce. The genes that survive are going to be the ones that make the most copies of themselves. Selfish genes will lead to altruistic animals because to the extent that evolution operates at the level of genes, there is no hard and fast distinction between your own body and someone else’s body. The genetic relatedness: affects how much you care for other people. B.F. Skinner: babies’ attachment to their parents is because parents provide food. Bowlby: babies are drawn to their mother for comfort and social interaction as well as fear of strangers
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hellospeak 2011-01-13 15:30:23
速必课英语在线一对一专注于培养学员英语口语能力，学员通过短时间的密集训练，掌握英语口语学习的正确途径和方法。我们聘请的外籍教师经多方严格筛选，均具有多年英语教学的丰富经验，尤其在英语口语教学中有一套独到的方法。 http://www.hellospeak.com/apply/trialE0.html 课程：日常英语、初级，中级，高级英语自由会话、商务英语、主题讨论 师资优势：我们的老师都来自菲律宾的专业英语教师，美式标准口音，丰富的教学经验，耐心，亲切，也有的老师有几年商务英语的工作经验，符合一些商务工作的学生。也有面试课程的，总之，您需要什么样的课程，我们都会满足您。 1、全部课程由外教授课； 2、纯正母语式英语教学；让您置身于全外语的环境中； 3、通过免费体验课，让外教了解你的英语水平，给您量身定做课程；；； 4、通过多元化，生动活泼的教学内容，使学生提高学习英语的兴趣； 5、外教一对一课程； http://www.hellospeak.com/apply/trialE0.html 我们的教材： 1.朗文英语 2.剑桥英语 3.自主编辑的自由会话课程教材 价格优势： 我们的价钱比传统外教英语便宜30-50%，拥有专业的海外教学团队，无需往返于培训学校，节省大量时间。我们只做一对一教学，开口机会更多。只要有网络，随时随地都可以自由选择老师，自由选择上课时间，成功预约一次，扣除一次费用，消费清清楚楚 http://www.hellospeak.com/apply/trialE0.html
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闲看花落 (2023 家人都平安) 楼主 2011-01-14 15:05:26
12. Emotions One way to look at our love for our children scientifically isn’t to look at it head-on, because the love we feel towards our own children feel sacred, it feels special. So we look at other species. How parents respond to children? Parental care to children shaped by the fact that children share the parents’ genes, and so parents will evolve in ways that perpetrate the survival of their children. How children respond to parents? Babies will development an attachment to whomever closest. They will recognize it as, at an implicit level, as their kin. 1. Skinner’s Cupboard theory: children love their mother because mother provides food. 2. Bowlby: there are two things going on. There is a draw to mom for comfort and social interaction and afraid of strangers. Experiment by Henry Harlow: wire mother(Skinnerian mother) vs cloth mother Some early attachment is critical for the developing of a primate. What’s more of a puzzle is that animals, including humans, seem to have exquisitely complicated relationships with non-kin. In particular, animals are nice to non-kin. They give warning cries, share childcare, share food. Animals benefit more by working together than by working alone, the benefits outweigh the cost. This is known as “Reciprocal altruism”, meaning my good behavior to you is predicated on the idea of reciprocation, “I’ll benefit from you.” The problem is the existence of cheaters who are also known as “Free-riders”. It takes the benefits without paying the cost. Since cheat in a short run does better than a non-cheater, how could this cooperation evolve? The answer is, “cheater detection”. Reciprocal altruism could only evolve if animals are wired up to punish cheaters. A classic illustration: the Prisoner’s Dilemma. “Tit-for tat”: the first time, be nice. After that, do on each trial what the other program did on the previous trial. The Ultimatum Game: if people are rational enough, they should know one dollar is better than nothing. But you know people are not purely rational, so most people would offer more than one dollar. Actually a rational person is easily exploited. A rational person’s responses to provocations, to assaults will always be measured inappropriate. There is some advantage to being irrational, to having a temper, because people are forced, by dint of your irrationality, to treat you better. “Cultural of honor”.
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